Perceptual Principles for Digital Environments II
Lecture Eight: Structure
Experimental Musical Instruments
Every design problem begins with an effort to achieve fitness between two entities: the form in question and its context. The form is the solution to the problem: the context defines the problem. In other words when we speak of design, the real object of discussion is not the form alone, but the ensemble comprising the form and its context.
Interaction
Interpenetration is when one plane passes through another
Folding is when two planes meet on a common edge and appear to fold a single plane
Abuttal is the edge of one plane meets the face of another plane.
Three planes joined so that they mutually interact will yield a stable structure.
Open and Closed Space
In planar constructions, open and closed space determine the visual movement or flow through the design.
Ockham’s razor
Ockham’s
razor asserts that simplicity is preferred to complexity in design.
Many variations of the principle exist, each adapted to address the
particulars of a field or domain of knowledge.
Implicit in
Ockham’s razor is the idea that unnecessary elements decrease a design’s
efficiency, and increase the probability of unanticipated consequences.
Unnecessary
weight, whether physical, visual, or cognitive, degrades performance.
Unnecessary
design elements have the potential to fail or create problems.
There is also
an aesthetic appeal to the principle, which likens the removing of unnecessary
elements from a design to the removal of impurities from a solution…the design
is a cleaner, purer result.
Use Ockham's
razor to evaluate and select among multiple, functionally equivalent designs.
Functional equivalence here refers to comparable performance of a design
on common measures. For example,
given two functionally equivalent displays - equal in information content and
readability - select the display with the fewest visual elements.
Evaluate each element within the selected design and remove as many as
possible without compromising function. Finally,
minimize the expression of remaining elements as much as possible without
compromising function.
Ernest C. Higgins Goalie Mask, 1964
Stephen Armellino Bullet-Resistant Mask, 1983
Eugene Walters Welding Helmet (Model 700), 1980
Elements
of Form
Point
Line
Plane
Color
Texture
These
fundamental elements combine into the visual and spatial properties that
make up a form.
Every
form requires a conceptual component and a material component that are
integrated to produce that form’s unique character.
The
conceptual component imparts shape to the form and the material component
adds richness, color, and texture.
Three-Dimensional Form
Demonstrates
actual plane and volume
Onscreen
environments express 3-D only through illusion.
3-D
forms must also take into account the literal concerns of material and
structure.
Spatial
Principles
Positive/Negative
The fact
that empty space can possess form just as does a material means that a circle
can be formed as either a disc or as a round hole, that a donut and its hole can
both be circles.
Position
Position sets the location of an element within a compositional space and relative to other elements in that space.
Direction
The
primary orientation of a form in space is experienced with reference to gravity.
Horizontal and vertical orientations conform to the constraints of
gravity and evoke a sense of stability. Diagonal
orientations a sense of movement free from the constraints of gravity.
The
secondary orientation of a form defines its direction in relation to other forms
in a composition. Two forms may be
perpendicular, skewed, or parallel to one another.
Parallel
or perpendicular forms suggest a sense of planning, a more plotted composition
than an arrangement of skewed forms.
Point
of View
Point of
view relies on the viewer’s own physical position in space relative to the
forms under view.
Frontal
point of view:
Back and
side views are less important and the designer accounts for this in arranging a
composition.
1945.jpg)
1940s.jpg)
Joseph Cornell Untitled
(The Hotel Eden),1945. Untitled (Bebe Marie),1940s
Full-round
point of view:
Internal
point of view:
The
composition and the viewer share the same space
Scale
Scale is
the size of a form as compared to the space containing it, to another form, or
to the human body.
Object
scale: designs that can be held
Human
scale: designs equivalent in size to one’s body
Duane
Hanson Tourists II 1988,
Monumental
scale: designs that dominate the immediate environment
Claes
Oldenburg GiantThree-WayPlug1970 and Clothespin 1976
Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen
Tom Otterness Crying Giant
Miniature
scale: smaller than object scale and/or of for example; humans
Environmental scale: dominates the landscape
Environmental sculpture uses natural materials such as leaves, grasses, stones, wood, sand, clay and ice to create works of art in the environment where they are found. An environmental sculptor plans a piece from the very beginning in relationship to its surroundings. The site is a catalyst, becoming part of the creative process. The finished sculpture and site become one integrated unit, working together to create a unified mood or atmosphere.
Robert Smithson SPIRAL JETTY
Rozel Point, Great Salt Lake, Utah April 1970
The measure of the scale of one form relative to another is termed proportion.
The Weather Project Olafur
Eliasson
Mini
Renault R6
International® 7300 CXT
Thanks to Michael Kuehl
Truck dimensions:
Overall length – 257 1/2"
Cab height – 108 1/4"
Standard bed length – 96"
Ground to bed floor – 57 1/2"
Ground to top of bed side – 77"
You get all the attributes of a commercial truck – but you don’t need a commercial driver’s license to drive it.*
Order
and Freedom
Human
minds will naturally seek to create order.
The
greatest obstacle to compelling compositions is the tendency to be too orderly.
In
design, as in life, interest, variety, freedom, and unexpected richness tend to
lose out to the safe monotony of excessive order.
Too much
freedom and variety can disjoint a composition.
Excess
freedom scatters expression and produces the same result as monotonous unity;
the loss of viewer engagement.
The key
comes in interweaving order and freedom, in choosing which to emphasize in the
achievement of one’s intended goal.
Structure
and Unity
Grids
are the most common examples of systematic structures.
As an
organizational device, a grid establishes a pre-set logic, which governs the
relative position, direction, and scale of all the visual elements of a
composition.
By
contrast, intuitive structure relies on the viewer’s psychological experience
of the visual interplay of elements to imbue a composition with a sense of
order.
Typically,
systemic structure relies on more formalized and mathematical applications of
unifying principles, while intuitive structure relies on far less prescriptive
applications.
Unifying
principles are perceptual devices that visually bind a composition together.
Some of these principles are:
Balance
Repetition
with Variety
Proportion
Continuity
Focus
and Emphasis
Economy
Balance
Balance
ensures that the two halves of a 2-D composition carry the same weight.
In three
dimensions, balance must work from all points of view.
The
three-dimensional artist must successfully balance a composition visually and
physically.
Real
gravity governs three-dimensional balance.
Balance
may be symmetrical or asymmetrical.
Symmetry
balances a composition by systematically repeating patterns of form within a
composition.
Asymmetry
counterbalances contrasting elements of equal visual and physical weight.
Symmetry is often, the mark of a systematic structure, while asymmetry
typifies intuitive structure.
.jpg)
Lynn
Chadwick Stranger III, 1959 (cast 1996)
The most
common symmetry in art is mirror (bilateral) symmetry, perhaps because it is the
symmetry of the human body.
In this
symmetry, one half of a composition is repeated by its reflection in the other
half.
Two-dimensional
mirror symmetry is reflected across a line of symmetry, while three-dimensional
mirror symmetry reflects across a plane of symmetry, any plane that divides an
object into two mirrored halves is termed a plane of symmetry.
A sphere
has an infinite number of planes of symmetry.
Radial
symmetry is another common symmetry.
In
three-dimensions, it consists of repeated forms that may be radial from a
central axis, like petals on a tulip, or spherical, from a central point, like
seeds on a dandelion.
Repetition
with Variety
Repetition
of the same or similar elements exerts order onto a composition.
Too much
repetition, too much order, however emits a visual drone that blankets interest.
Variety is needed to pique attention.
One or
more of the formal and special characteristics of an element may be repeated,
while one or more other characteristics may be varied.
A single
shape, say a sphere, may be used over and over, but its size and color may vary.
A series of elongated shapes may differ sharply in appearance, but if
they are all parallel and facing in the same direction, they will appear
unified.
Repeating
not just compositional elements but also specific relationships between these
elements can exert a strong unity.
Proportion
is a particularly good example of such a relationship.
The same
proportional ration, for example, when chosen to govern all of the individual
scale relationships throughout the entire composition, effects order throughout
the entire composition.
Donald Judd 100 untitled works in mill aluminum,
1982-1986
Lot16,Untitled1966
Stack, 1969
Rhythm
and Gradation
Rhythm
and gradation are two important applications of repletion with variety.
Both entail the systematic repetition of intervals of change.
In
rhythm one or more intervals are set up in short succession with that succession
repeated throughout the composition. Polyrhythmic
compositions interweave a number of rhythmic patterns.
They gain richness in their compounding and contrasting of multiple
rhythms.
Gradation
uses intervals of change in a progressive series and sets a path for the eye to
follow. For instance, forms may grow
smaller bit by bit or they might gradually shift their color or shape.
8'h x 5'6"w x 26'l, stained glass, steel, aluminum
Bureau of Criminal Apprehension, St. Paul, MN
Modular
Proportion
A proportional system that limits
incremental changes of scale to a single unit of measurement is called modular
proportion.
The unit of measure, for instance
1” in a small paper project, is called the modulus of proportion.
The size of the modulus is
arbitrary, but consistent throughout the composition.
6 ½” cubes with a 1 5/8”
modulus is proportionate to 4” cubes divided into 1” modules.
Architects typically build houses
using modules of either 16” or 24” to space wall studs, floor joists, and
rafters, and to proportion the sizes of their rooms.
These figures drive from three
parameters: the scale of the human body, the strength of lumber, and the
economizing of material.
Standard 4’ x 8’ pieces of plywood or sheet rock divide evenly by both of these modules. Just as important, the repeated use of the same modulus supplies proportional order to the architectural design.
The current LEGO stud-and-tube coupling system was patented in 1958 (Design Patent #92683)
Lincoln Logs
Lincoln Logs were first marketed in the early 1920's by John Lloyd Wright Inc., of Chicago. John Lloyd Wright was the son of the famous architect (Frank). The simple sets could be used for building log cabins that were indeed similar to one Lincoln might have lived in. Later sets became more elaborate and could be used to build forts and other more elaborate structures. Although the conventional Lincoln Log was round, square logs and even bricks were also sold.
Ratio
Proportion
Proportion can also be based on mathematical ratios. In ratio proportion the relative scale of one element to another is expressed as a ratio.
The Golden Section, expressed by the ratio 1:1.618, has been utilized in design as far back as construction of the Egyptian pyramids. Its remarkable and elegantly complex properties appear repeatedly in both architecture and in nature.
The
Golden Section is also known as the Golden Mean, Golden Ratio and Divine
Proportion. It is a ratio or proportion defined by the number Phi
(Φ
=
1.618033988749895...)
It
can be derived with a number of geometric
constructions, each of which divides a line segment at the unique point
where:
The
ratio of the whole line (A) to the large segment (B) is the same as the ratio of
the large segment (B) to the small segment (C).
In
other words, A is to B as B is to C.
This
occurs only where A is 1.618... times B and B is 1.618... times C.
This
ratio has been used by mankind for centuries
As the Golden
Section is found in the design and beauty of nature, it can also be used to
achieve beauty and balance in the design of art. This is only a tool
though, and not a rule, for composition.
The Golden Section
was used extensively by Leonardo Da Vinci. Note how all the key dimensions
of the room and the table in Da Vinci's "The Last Supper" were based
on the Golden Section, which was known in the Renaissance period as The Divine
Proportion.
Leonardo da Vinci The Last Supper (after
cleaning), 1498, 460 x 880 cm
The
French impressionist painter Georges Seurat is said to have "attacked every
canvas by the golden section," as illustrated here:
Continuity
Because
gradation traces visual paths, it works well for creating continuity.
Continuity is the visual connection of the forms of an object into linear
patterns. Continuity laces together
the parts of a composition with paths of visual movement.
Continuity of form results when these paths may also direct the eye by
interconnecting the empty spaces within the object.
Continuity of space rivals continuity of form in unifying the object.
David Smith
Focus
and Emphasis
In
contrast to continuity, focus and emphasis promote unity by steering the
viewer’s eye to one spot in the composition.
Focus orients the element of a composition toward this spot, while
emphasis brings out one part of the composition as dominant.
Increased scale, stronger coloration, and more psychologically intense
shapes are a few means used to increase emphasis.
A composition may have more than one area of focus or emphasis.
Often a strong dominate area may balance off satellite areas of lesser
focus.
Isamu
Noguchi Big Boy, 1952
Economy
Economy
means doing as much as possible as effectively as possible with as little as
possible. It enforces unity by
enhancing the clarity and strength of expression and the efficiency of the
operation of the object.
On the
one hand, economy enforces unity by reduction, by paring down to its essentials.
On the other hand, it ensures unity through selection, by including
everything that is necessary for the object to be effective.
The end result may be simple, but it could just as well be complex,
depending on the designer’s goals and the purpose of the object.
Constantin Brancusi Bird in Space, 1924
Bird in Space, 1923.jpg)
The Kiss, 1912
Applied Line and Decoration
A decoration is any surface enhancement that is not integral to the spatial form.
Mass and Void
Space can be either full or empty
A void is an empty volume, while a mass is a filled volume.
Voids and masses can be referred to as:
Negative space/ Positive space
Negative form/Positive form
Volume/Solid or Space/Form
Mass/Void Interaction
When a void occurs, the space between two solids it is passive.
When it occurs as a removal, or subtraction, from a solid, the void is active.
Penetration of space can be regarded as empty space entering into a solid form.
Penetration is a deep incursion of space into a mass, where as concavity refers to slight indentations.
If space completely passes through a solid form it is a perforation.
Isamu Noguchi
Subtraction and Addition
Carving is an example of a subtractive process where sections of simple mass are removed (or voided) to create a more complex mass.
Subtractions should create distinctively shaped voids that interact visually with the mass to create strong positive/negative relationships and open up the space of a form.
Additive processes build form up and out into space.
Addition suggests growth.
Surface and Volume
A closed surface defines volume
The surface may be curved, like an egg, faceted, like a cube or a combination of both, like a cylinder.
Volumes enclosed by continuously curving surfaces are integrate volumes.
Integrate volumes have no sharp corners, straight line, or flat planes
All organic volumes are integrate volumes
Volumes enclosed by faceted surfaces are called polyhedrons
Enclosing Volume
A cube constructed from six square plates of steel will read as a solid even though it is an empty volume.
The most common method of fabricating closed volumes is pattern construction
Geometric Volumes
Polyhedrons
Polyhedrons
are geometric solids whose faces are polygons. The prefix poly means
"many" and hedron means "face".
A face (or facet) of a solid is by definition a flat plane. A polygon is
a plane figure demarcated by straight sides. As part of a polyhedron the sides
of the polygon become the edges of the polyhedron and the corners of the
polygons meet to become vertices of a polyhedron.
Types
of Polygons
Geometers
name polygons according to the number of sides enclosing them. Triangles have
three sides and quadrilaterals have four sides. Beginning with five sided
figures polygons are named according to the Greek name for the number of sides:
pentagons, hexagons, heptagons and octagon, for example, feature 5, 6,7 and 8
sides respectively.
The
sides and corner angles of regular polygons are all equal. Most polygons tend to
be convex, meaning that all of their angles point outward, but should a corner
turn inward, the polygon is labeled as concave.
Types
of Polyhedrons
The
simplest and most common polyhedrons used in constructive modeling are prisms,
pyramids and the truncation, or frustum, of a pyramid.
These
three categories of polyhedrons constitute the vast majority of constructive
modeling and are the subject of this tutorial. A particularly elegant, but less
common, family of polyhedrons is the spherical polyhedrons. These tend to have
many, many faces deployed around the center as if on a ball.
